Effects of After-School Programs on Student Cognitive and Non-Cognitive Abilities: A Meta-Analysis Based on 37 Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Studies
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Published
Jul 29, 2023
Abstract
The after-school program is a crucial initiative for implementing the Double Reduction policy; however, prior research has not provided conclusive evidence on whether extended school hours contribute to students’ cognitive and non-cognitive development or on which types of after-school services are more beneficial for student development. This study analyzed 37 after-school programs from 18 publications using meta-analytic techniques, and the results indicated that participation in after-school programs had positive effects on student cognitive and non-cognitive development despite the small effect size (d = 0.327, p = 0.000). The decomposition of the effects of after-school programs revealed that they had modestly positive effects on academic achievement (d = 0.369) and social-emotional competence (d = 0.220). In addition, the analysis of moderating variables revealed that socioeconomic status, educational phase, number of after-school service days per week, sample size, and testing instrument all influenced the after-school program effects. This study concludes, based on the results of the meta-analysis, that there should be a balanced consideration of the development of student cognitive and non-cognitive abilities in planning after-school service, a substantial variety of activities in after-school programs, a flexible adoption of diverse after-school programs, and a reasonable participation frequency in after-school service.
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Keywords
After-School Programs, Cognitive and Non-cognitive Abilities, Meta-Analysis
Supporting Agencies
This study is funded by the project “Research on reshaping education and teaching order and quality standards in the new situation” (Project No. A/2022/b5) and the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (PAPD).
References
(Studies included in the meta-analysis are marked with asterisks)
*Ariyo, S.O., & Adeleke J. O. (2018). Using after school programme to improve mathematics achievement and attitude among grade ten low achievers. Journal of the International Society for Teacher Education, 22(2):47-58.
*Biggart, A., Kerr, K., O'Hare, L., & Connolly P. (2013). A randomised control trial evaluation of a literacy after-school programme for struggling beginning reader. International Journal of Educational Research, 62:129-140. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2013.07.005
Bohnert, A.M., & Ward, A. K. (2013). Making a difference: evaluating the girls in the game (gig) after-school program. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 33(1):104-130. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431612466174
Chen, W., Wei, J., Zhao, S.Y., & Zhang, J. F. (2016). Testing the statistical heterogeneity in meta-analysis: A Monte Carlo study. Journal of Southwest University (Natural Science Edition), 2016(2):120-125. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13718/j.cnki.xdzk.2016.02.019
Chernyshenko, O.S., Kankaraš, M., & Drasgow F. (2018). Social and Emotional Skills for Student Success and Well-Being: Conceptual Framework for the OECD Study on Social and Emotional Skills. OECD Publishing. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1787/19939019
Cheung, A.C.K., & Slavin, R. E. (2016). How methodological features affect effect sizes in education. Educational Researcher, 45(5):283-292. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X16656615
Cohen, J. (2013). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. New York: Routledge.
Crawford, S. T. (2011). Meta-Analysis of the Impact of After-School Programs on Students Reading and Mathematics Performance. University of North Texas, Texas.
*Dreyer, K. J. (2010). An Examination of Academic Outcomes for Students Who Attend a School-Based Afterschool Program. University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Durlak, J.A., Weissberg, R.P., & Pachan, M. (2010). A meta-analysis of after-school programs that seek to promote personal and social skills in children and adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45(3-4):294-309. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9300-6
Fang, C.C., Hu, Y.M., & Zhang, P. P. (2018). Can primary school pupils benefit from after-school service. Journal of Educational Science of Hunan Normal University, 2018(1):69-77. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19503/j.cnki.1671-6124.2018.01.011
*Fulmer, A. D. (2013). Investigating Relationships between Academic Achievement and After School Programs in a High School Environment. University of South Carolina, South Carolina.
Gao, W., Zhou, J.T., & Li, Z. X. (2022). After-school service in compulsory education against the backdrop of the implementation of the double reduction policy: Challenges and coping strategies. China Educational Technology, 2022(5):35-41+58.
*Gardner, L. T. (2014). The Impact of Afterschool Tutoring on Reading Scores of Elementary Students. Walden University, Minnesota.
*Ha, Y., & Park, H. (2017). Can after-school programs and private tutoring help improve students’ achievement? Revisiting the effects in Korean secondary schools. Asia Pacific Education Review, 18(1):65-79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-016-9451-8
*Hobbs, C. L. (2012). Effects of an Afterschool Program on Elementary and Middle School Math Achievement in Georgia Schools. Liberty University, Virginia.
*Jones, B. R. (2014). An After-School Program and its Effect on the Math and Reading Performance Levels of the Standardized Testing and Reporting (Star) for Identified at-Risk Students. Capella University, Minneapolis.
*LeCroy, C. W. (2004). Experimental evaluation of “Go Grrrl” preventive intervention for early adolescent girls. Journal of Primary Prevention, 25(4):457-473. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOPP.0000048112.10700.89
Li, J. L., & Pan, D. D. (2020). The determinants and impacts of private tutoring in and out of school in Hong Kong. Education & Economy, 36(2):49-59. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1003-4870.2020.02.006
*Londregan, K. (2011). The impact of an after-school mathematics program on the educational outcomes of Title I middle school students. Educational Leadership. Rowan University, New Jersey.
Mahoney, J.L., Parente, M.E., & Lord, H. (2007). After-school program engagement: links to child competence and program quality and content. The Elementary School Journal, 107(4):385-404. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/516670
*Martin, J. F. (2000). Resiliency Enhancement: A Comparison of After-School Child Care Programs for Selected Elementary School Students. Florida Atlantic University, Florida.
*Moldow, E. (2007). After-School Program Activities and Academic Achievement: A Study in One Urban K–8 School. Brandeis University, Massachusetts.
*Morrison, G.M., Storino M.H., Robertson L.M., Weissglass T.&Dondero A. (2000). The protective function of after-school programming and parent education and support for students at risk for substance abuse. Evaluation and Program Planning, 23(3):365-371. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-7189(00)00025-2
Niehaus, K., Rudasill, K.M., & Adelson J.L. (2012). Self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and academic outcomes among latino middle school students participating in an after-school program. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 34(1):118-136. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986311424275
*Pendry, P., & Roeter S. (2013). Experimental trial demonstrates positive effects of equine facilitated learning on child social competence. Human-Animal Interaction Bulletin, 1(1):1-19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1079/hai.2013.0004
*Pendry, P., Carr A.M., Smith A.N., & Roeter, S. M. (2014). Improving adolescent social competence and behavior: A randomized trial of an 11-week equine facilitated learning prevention program. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 35: 281-293. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-014-0350-7
Rosenthal, R. (1979). The file drawer problem and tolerance for null results. Psychological Bulletin, 86(3):638-641. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.3.638
Roth, J.L., Malone L.M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2010). Does the amount of participation in afterschool programs relate to developmental outcomes? A review of the literature. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45(3-4):310-324. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9303-3
*Townsend, D., & Collins, P. (2009). Academic vocabulary and middle school english learners: An intervention study. Reading and Writing, 22(9):993-1019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-008-9141-y
*Venzen, M. A. (2011). Impact of the Twenty-First Century Afterschool Program on Student Achievement in Mathematics and Language Arts. Capella University, Minneapolis.
Walker, C. S. (2006). Participation in a Full Service School After Hours Enrichment Program: An Assessment of Students' Academic and Social Progress. University of Tennessee, Tennessee.
Wang, Y. F., He, Y., & Li, M. J. (2014). The relationship between school workload and academic performance of elementary school students. Journal of the Chinese Society of Education, 2014(10):59-63.
Xu, J. J., & Yang, Y. X. (2021). The current state, effects, and cultivating strategies of student social and emotional skills from an international perspective: An analysis based on OECD survey. Open Education Research, 2021(05):44-52+120. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13966/j.cnki.kfjyyj.2021.05.005
Yang, W. D. (2021). Evidence-based evaluation of after-school programs in the United States. International and Comparative Education, 2021(8):64-70+112.
Yang, Z. C. (2021). The influences of the school and family on student ability enhancement: An analysis based on the data of china education panel survey. Journal of National Academy of Education Administration, 2021(8):66-76.
*Yun, G. K. (2011). The Effects of a Movement-Based After-School Music Program on Music Underachievers’ Musical Achievement, Social Development and Self-Esteem. Arizona State University, Arizona.
Zeng, Z. B., & Yao, J. J. (2020). Identifying the “Best Evidence”: How to use meta-analysis to conduct a literature review: a case of STEM education’s effect on student academic achievement. Journal of East China Normal University (Educational Sciences), 2020(06):70-85. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2020.06.005
Zhang, T.S., Dong, S.J., & Zhou, Z. R. (2015). Advanced Meta-analysis in Stata. Shanghai: Fudan University Press.
Zhang, W. P., Fu, W. D., L, W., & Zeng, X. (2021). Can after-school service in primary and secondary schools promote educational equity: Based on 32 counties (districts) in 6 provinces (autonomous regions) in China. China Educational Technology, 2021(11):16-23.
Zief, S.G., Lauver, S., & Maynard, R. A. (2006). Impacts of after-school programs on student outcomes. Campbell Systematic Review, 2(1):1-51. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2006.3
*Ariyo, S.O., & Adeleke J. O. (2018). Using after school programme to improve mathematics achievement and attitude among grade ten low achievers. Journal of the International Society for Teacher Education, 22(2):47-58.
*Biggart, A., Kerr, K., O'Hare, L., & Connolly P. (2013). A randomised control trial evaluation of a literacy after-school programme for struggling beginning reader. International Journal of Educational Research, 62:129-140. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2013.07.005
Bohnert, A.M., & Ward, A. K. (2013). Making a difference: evaluating the girls in the game (gig) after-school program. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 33(1):104-130. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431612466174
Chen, W., Wei, J., Zhao, S.Y., & Zhang, J. F. (2016). Testing the statistical heterogeneity in meta-analysis: A Monte Carlo study. Journal of Southwest University (Natural Science Edition), 2016(2):120-125. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13718/j.cnki.xdzk.2016.02.019
Chernyshenko, O.S., Kankaraš, M., & Drasgow F. (2018). Social and Emotional Skills for Student Success and Well-Being: Conceptual Framework for the OECD Study on Social and Emotional Skills. OECD Publishing. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1787/19939019
Cheung, A.C.K., & Slavin, R. E. (2016). How methodological features affect effect sizes in education. Educational Researcher, 45(5):283-292. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X16656615
Cohen, J. (2013). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. New York: Routledge.
Crawford, S. T. (2011). Meta-Analysis of the Impact of After-School Programs on Students Reading and Mathematics Performance. University of North Texas, Texas.
*Dreyer, K. J. (2010). An Examination of Academic Outcomes for Students Who Attend a School-Based Afterschool Program. University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Durlak, J.A., Weissberg, R.P., & Pachan, M. (2010). A meta-analysis of after-school programs that seek to promote personal and social skills in children and adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45(3-4):294-309. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9300-6
Fang, C.C., Hu, Y.M., & Zhang, P. P. (2018). Can primary school pupils benefit from after-school service. Journal of Educational Science of Hunan Normal University, 2018(1):69-77. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19503/j.cnki.1671-6124.2018.01.011
*Fulmer, A. D. (2013). Investigating Relationships between Academic Achievement and After School Programs in a High School Environment. University of South Carolina, South Carolina.
Gao, W., Zhou, J.T., & Li, Z. X. (2022). After-school service in compulsory education against the backdrop of the implementation of the double reduction policy: Challenges and coping strategies. China Educational Technology, 2022(5):35-41+58.
*Gardner, L. T. (2014). The Impact of Afterschool Tutoring on Reading Scores of Elementary Students. Walden University, Minnesota.
*Ha, Y., & Park, H. (2017). Can after-school programs and private tutoring help improve students’ achievement? Revisiting the effects in Korean secondary schools. Asia Pacific Education Review, 18(1):65-79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-016-9451-8
*Hobbs, C. L. (2012). Effects of an Afterschool Program on Elementary and Middle School Math Achievement in Georgia Schools. Liberty University, Virginia.
*Jones, B. R. (2014). An After-School Program and its Effect on the Math and Reading Performance Levels of the Standardized Testing and Reporting (Star) for Identified at-Risk Students. Capella University, Minneapolis.
*LeCroy, C. W. (2004). Experimental evaluation of “Go Grrrl” preventive intervention for early adolescent girls. Journal of Primary Prevention, 25(4):457-473. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOPP.0000048112.10700.89
Li, J. L., & Pan, D. D. (2020). The determinants and impacts of private tutoring in and out of school in Hong Kong. Education & Economy, 36(2):49-59. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1003-4870.2020.02.006
*Londregan, K. (2011). The impact of an after-school mathematics program on the educational outcomes of Title I middle school students. Educational Leadership. Rowan University, New Jersey.
Mahoney, J.L., Parente, M.E., & Lord, H. (2007). After-school program engagement: links to child competence and program quality and content. The Elementary School Journal, 107(4):385-404. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/516670
*Martin, J. F. (2000). Resiliency Enhancement: A Comparison of After-School Child Care Programs for Selected Elementary School Students. Florida Atlantic University, Florida.
*Moldow, E. (2007). After-School Program Activities and Academic Achievement: A Study in One Urban K–8 School. Brandeis University, Massachusetts.
*Morrison, G.M., Storino M.H., Robertson L.M., Weissglass T.&Dondero A. (2000). The protective function of after-school programming and parent education and support for students at risk for substance abuse. Evaluation and Program Planning, 23(3):365-371. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-7189(00)00025-2
Niehaus, K., Rudasill, K.M., & Adelson J.L. (2012). Self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and academic outcomes among latino middle school students participating in an after-school program. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 34(1):118-136. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986311424275
*Pendry, P., & Roeter S. (2013). Experimental trial demonstrates positive effects of equine facilitated learning on child social competence. Human-Animal Interaction Bulletin, 1(1):1-19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1079/hai.2013.0004
*Pendry, P., Carr A.M., Smith A.N., & Roeter, S. M. (2014). Improving adolescent social competence and behavior: A randomized trial of an 11-week equine facilitated learning prevention program. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 35: 281-293. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-014-0350-7
Rosenthal, R. (1979). The file drawer problem and tolerance for null results. Psychological Bulletin, 86(3):638-641. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.3.638
Roth, J.L., Malone L.M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2010). Does the amount of participation in afterschool programs relate to developmental outcomes? A review of the literature. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45(3-4):310-324. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9303-3
*Townsend, D., & Collins, P. (2009). Academic vocabulary and middle school english learners: An intervention study. Reading and Writing, 22(9):993-1019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-008-9141-y
*Venzen, M. A. (2011). Impact of the Twenty-First Century Afterschool Program on Student Achievement in Mathematics and Language Arts. Capella University, Minneapolis.
Walker, C. S. (2006). Participation in a Full Service School After Hours Enrichment Program: An Assessment of Students' Academic and Social Progress. University of Tennessee, Tennessee.
Wang, Y. F., He, Y., & Li, M. J. (2014). The relationship between school workload and academic performance of elementary school students. Journal of the Chinese Society of Education, 2014(10):59-63.
Xu, J. J., & Yang, Y. X. (2021). The current state, effects, and cultivating strategies of student social and emotional skills from an international perspective: An analysis based on OECD survey. Open Education Research, 2021(05):44-52+120. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13966/j.cnki.kfjyyj.2021.05.005
Yang, W. D. (2021). Evidence-based evaluation of after-school programs in the United States. International and Comparative Education, 2021(8):64-70+112.
Yang, Z. C. (2021). The influences of the school and family on student ability enhancement: An analysis based on the data of china education panel survey. Journal of National Academy of Education Administration, 2021(8):66-76.
*Yun, G. K. (2011). The Effects of a Movement-Based After-School Music Program on Music Underachievers’ Musical Achievement, Social Development and Self-Esteem. Arizona State University, Arizona.
Zeng, Z. B., & Yao, J. J. (2020). Identifying the “Best Evidence”: How to use meta-analysis to conduct a literature review: a case of STEM education’s effect on student academic achievement. Journal of East China Normal University (Educational Sciences), 2020(06):70-85. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2020.06.005
Zhang, T.S., Dong, S.J., & Zhou, Z. R. (2015). Advanced Meta-analysis in Stata. Shanghai: Fudan University Press.
Zhang, W. P., Fu, W. D., L, W., & Zeng, X. (2021). Can after-school service in primary and secondary schools promote educational equity: Based on 32 counties (districts) in 6 provinces (autonomous regions) in China. China Educational Technology, 2021(11):16-23.
Zief, S.G., Lauver, S., & Maynard, R. A. (2006). Impacts of after-school programs on student outcomes. Campbell Systematic Review, 2(1):1-51. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2006.3
How to Cite
Yao, J., Yao, J., Li, P., Xu, Y., & Wei, L. (2023). Effects of After-School Programs on Student Cognitive and Non-Cognitive Abilities: A Meta-Analysis Based on 37 Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Studies. Science Insights Education Frontiers, 17(1), 2627–2649. https://doi.org/10.15354/sief.23.re228
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Section
Meta-Analysis
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